Veterinary health care, encompassing monies spend on pets and companion animals and business expenditures incurred in maintaining the health of farm and work animals, cost owners approximately $2.8 billion dollars in 1998. The typical dog owner may expect to spend over $275.00 in one year in veterinary costs.

A major portion of any veterinarian's livelihood may be based on compounding and dispensing medicines in their practice. In fact, it is estimated that 30% of a veterinarian's profit arises from dispensing. Therefore it is understandable that veterinarians may not utilise retail pharmacy as much as human medicine. However, the pharmacist, as the drug expert, can develop a strong working relationship with veterinarians. The pharmacist's knowledge of drugs, their stability, their actions, and compounding techniques used in making them suitable for administration, can be utilised by the veterinarian. This is especially true for unique drugs or situations that the veterinarian may not encounter on a daily basis. This course is designed to introduce the pharmacy student to some of the unique drugs and diseases that are encountered in veterinary practice.

The pharmacist may be presented with opportunities for compounding drugs to meet specific needs of the veterinarian. This may include, but is certainly not limited to, the following situations.

Increasing/decreasing dosage size appropriate for species in a host of dosage forms including capsules, liquids, or "treats".
Drugs that are no longer available commercially (this can cause some legal questions as outlined below).
Combinations of agents that are not commercially available.
Dosage forms that are not commercially available (ophthalmic, otic, et c.)
Formulations in flavours that make the drug more palatable to the animal.
Formulation of TPNs (i.e. specially diluted formulæ for foals) and other parenteral products (i.e. diluted doxapram for foals).

In assessing the health of any animal, the normal values are of importance. Following is a summary of a few of the vital statistics of numerous species (for comparative purposes). Where ranges are followed by parentheses, the parenthetical value indicates the average.

Species	Rectal Temperature (oF±1oF)	Heart Rate  (beats/min)	Respiratory Rate (beats/min)	Gestation Period (days)	Age at Puberty (months)
Dog	102	100-130	22	58-70	5-24
Cat	101.5	110-140 (120)	26	58-65	4-12 (10)
Cow	101	60-70	30	279-292	4-18 (12)
Horse: Stallion	99.7	23-70 (44)	12		10-24 (18)
Mare	100	23-70 (44)	12	330-342	10-24 (18)
Goat	102.3	70-135 (90)		145-155	4-8 (5)
Pig	102.5	55-86		112-115	4-9 (7)
Sheep	102.3	60-120 (75)	19	144-151	7-12 (9)
Rabbit	103.1	123-304 (205)	39	30-35	4-12
Guinea Pig	102	260-400 (280)	90	66	55-70 days
Rat	100.5	261-600 (328)	97	22	36-67 days
Hamster		300-600 (450)	74	15	4-6 weeks
Chicken	106.5	250-300	13	20-22 day incubation
Camel	98	25-32 (30)		410
Elephant	96	22-53 (35)		600-660
Giraffe		66		420-450
Lion		40		108
Skunk		144-192 (166)		62-65
Squirrel	98.5	96-378 (249)		30-40
Bat	96.5	100-970 (750)
Pigeon			26	10-18 day incubation
Monkey	103	165-240 (292)	40	150-180	3 yrs
Human	98.6	70	20	270	12 yrs

The pharmacist should also be aware that specific differences exist, not only between humans and animals, but between species of animals. As an example -- while doses may generally be extrapolated from ruminant to ruminant they should not be extrapolated from dog to cat. This arises from differences in total blood volume, with dogs averaging approximately 90 ml of blood/Kg of body weight and cats 70 ml/Kg. Additionally, cats do not generally maintain hydration as well as dogs. Other differences that impact pharmacologic therapy include differences in metabolism. These will be discussed later in the course.

Veterinary Dosage Forms

Oral Dosing -- Ideally, the animal should ingest the medication on their own, with no help from owners or caregivers. This may be attempted by placing the medication in a suitable and palatable vehicle, which the animal may consume. (Some specifics for veterinary compounding follows.) However, in many instances, the animal refuses to ingest the medication, regardless of all attempts to mask the presence of medication either in food or vehicle. Therefore, many of the veterinary preparations may be given orally in either solid or liquid dosage forms. Large solid dosage forms for large animals are often termed bolus dosage forms (a usage that is different than the normally perceived "bolus" form of human drugs). Additionally, some oral medications (especially anthelminthics and some anti-inflammatories) are available as pastes, administered by a device that is very similar to a caulking gun. Another means of administering oral drugs is termed "drenching", in which liquid medications are poured over the tongue of the animal. Following is a brief summary of the various oral dosing forms and devices:
Balling Gun -- a plunder deposits a solid dosage form (bolus) in the gullet

Esophageal Delivery Device -- deposits the drug directly in the stomach

Drench Syringe/Gun -- delivers a liquid into the gullet or over the tongue, may also be used for powders

Oral Dose Dispensers and Paste Dispensers -- the "caulk" guns referred to above

Rumen Lodging Device -- Deposits the drug in a sustained release form directly into the rumen, the drug       adheres to the rumen wall.

Hollow bits -- bits containing a controlled release drug are placed in the mouth of the animal

Bouyant Forms -- the medication is designed to float through GI contents, providing sustained release.

Parenteral Dosing -- In general, the methods and means of administering parenteral drugs is the same as in human patients, although the size of the needle may differ. Typical syringes are often used, however, some exist that have been specially adapted or designed.
Pole-mounted syringes -- for distance administration
Mastitis syringes -- for injection directly into the teat/mammary glands
Jet injectors -- introduce the med via a high speed liquid jet directly through the skin
Arrows & darts -- may be delivered by rifle or blow gun
Sustained Release -- In addition to the sustained release oral forms, implanted devices may be surgically inserted or injected into animals, including intrauterine dispensing systems.
Topical Dosing -- In some instances, topical administration is easier or more appropriate. In many cases creams, ointments, and gels are used as with human patients. However, small animals may be literally dipped in a medication. Dipping may also refer to sponging medication onto the entire surface of the animal, either large or small. Additionally, dusts may be applied locally. Topical or local dosing targets a specific area to be treated.
Dust bags -- provide consistant amounts over a widespread area.

Flea/tick collars -- the therapeutic value of these devices is debated among professionals as to their actual efficacy. These provide a sustained release of insecticide designed to prevent infestation.

Teat dip -- a specially-designed applicator intended to coat the infected teat. Medication is placed in the cup, which is raised so that the teat is immersed in the liquid.

Cutaneous patches -- used as in human meds

Ear tampons -- provide a constant exposure to the medication

Vaginal sponges/suppositories -- provide constant exposure to the medication


Nasal Administration -- Preparations for nasal administration are often placed in a propylene glycol solution and delivered as single drops or by an aerosolised spray, using nebulisers.

Otic Administration -- Anhydrous bases are the preferred vehicle, although there are not many of these available. Liquid vehicles include polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, glycerin, and olive (sweet) oil. Preparations may be solutions or suspensions, however gels (providing persistence of medication) and powders are also used.

Other Routes and Formulations -- Suppositories may also be used in veterinary practice. Preparation of veterinary suppositories and all other drugs should be aseptic and sterile, just as those for human medicines.